鳥塚 通弘

AIM: Given that alterations in oxytocinergic and immune systems have been implicated in the social and emotional difficulties of autism spectrum disorder (ASD), yet the associations between these biological factors and internal psychological constructs remain unclear, we examined the relationship between salivary oxytocin (OT) levels, inflammatory markers (interleukin-1β [IL-1β], IL-6, IL-8), self-esteem, and perceived social support in children and adolescents with and without ASD. METHODS: 26 children and adolescents with ASD and 23 typically developing (TD) controls were included. Salivary OT and inflammatory cytokine levels were measured using enzyme-linked immunosorbent and multiplex immunoassays. RESULTS: Salivary oxytocin levels were significantly lower in the ASD group than in the TD group after adjusting for age. In contrast, no significant group differences were observed in inflammatory markers (IL-1β, IL-6, or IL-8). However, across participants, including those with ASD, higher OT levels were associated with greater self-esteem and perceived social support. These findings suggest that oxytocin-related socio-emotional processes may be associated with socio-emotional functioning across children and adolescents, including those with ASD. Participants with higher OT levels were associated with greater self-esteem and perceived social support. Among the inflammatory markers, none of the cytokines (IL-1β, IL-6, or IL-8) showed significant associations with the psychological measures, including AQ-J total scores. CONCLUSION: OT levels may be associated with socio-emotional functioning and psychological well-being across children and adolescents with and without ASD, regardless of diagnostic status. In contrast, no significant associations were observed between inflammatory markers and psychological measures in the present sample.

Sex differences in autism spectrum disorder (ASD) are increasingly recognized, not only in symptom presentation but also in underlying neurobiology and response to environmental factors. However, current diagnostic practices and animal models are male-centric, overlooking female-specific phenotypes and mechanisms. We conducted a multimodal, cross-species study to assess sex-dependent ASD phenotypes. In high-functioning adults with ASD and typically developing (TD) controls, we evaluated self-reported autistic traits, self-reported sensory sensitivity, and clinician-observed behaviors using standardized tools: Autism-Spectrum Quotient, Adolescent/Adult Sensory Profile, and Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule, Second Edition (ADOS-2). In parallel, we assessed behavioral phenotypes in a paternal 15q11-q13 duplication mouse model (15q dup/+) using open-field, light-dark transition, and augmented reality-based behavioral assays. Among humans, individuals with ASD showed greater self-reported sensory sensitivity and autistic traits than TD individuals. Within the ASD group, female participants reported greater self-reported sensory sensitivity and exhibited lower clinician-rated impairments (ADOS-2) than male participants, despite comparable self-reported autistic traits. No sex differences were found among TD individuals. In contrast, female 15q dup/+ mice exhibited heightened light-related sensory reactivity and reduced exploratory behavior under bright light. These findings suggest that sex differences in light-related sensory reactivity may be more readily detected through behavioral measures in animal models. Our findings underscore the importance of considering sex as a biological and behavioral variable in ASD research. Cross-species, phenotype-oriented approaches that integrate human and animal data may uncover subtle phenotypic variations and enhance sex-informed diagnostics and interventions.

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental condition characterized by impaired social communication and restricted repetitive behaviors, yet the contribution of trace elements remains poorly defined. We profiled 21 trace elements in individuals with ASD and identified significantly reduced copper levels, which negatively correlated with social symptom severity. Magnetic resonance imaging revealed decreased white matter volume in ASD, which also correlated with social impairment. To explore the mechanisms, we generated a copper-deficient mouse model that displayed ASD-like behaviors and impaired oligodendrocyte (OL) development. Copper deficiency disrupted hypoxia-inducible factor 1α (HIF1α)–dependent angiogenesis and metabolic regulation in the embryonic brain, leading to oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, and BCL2 interacting protein 3 (BNIP3)-mediated mitophagy in oligodendrocyte progenitor cells. These processes suppressed mechanistic target of rapamycin kinase (mTOR) signaling, reduced OL-lineage cells, and caused hypomyelination. Restoring mTOR activity rescued OL maturation and improved social behavior in copper-deficient mice. These findings identify a copper-HIF1α-BNIP3-mTOR signaling axis that links trace element imbalance to glial dysfunction and ASD-relevant behavioral phenotypes, providing mechanistic insight into neurodevelopment.

Neuropsychiatric disorders pose profound challenges to both research and treatment, largely due to their clinical heterogeneity and the limited understanding of their underlying biological mechanisms. While bulk RNA sequencing (bulk RNA-seq) has been widely used to study gene expression, it cannot resolve cell-type-specific signals or detect rare cellular subpopulations. In contrast, single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) and single-nucleus RNA sequencing (snRNA-seq) have emerged as transformative technologies, enabling transcriptomic profiling at single-cell resolution. These approaches have revealed immunological alterations across a wide range of disorders. This review introduces recent findings from sc/snRNA-seq studies of immune-related mechanisms in psychiatric disorders-including schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, major depressive disorder, autism spectrum disorder, and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder-as well as in neurological conditions such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, dementia with Lewy bodies, multiple sclerosis, and anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis. While sc/snRNA-seq overcome averaging effects of bulk RNA-seq by resolving cell types, these methods still face challenges. We outline a roadmap that integrates bulk RNA-seq and sc/snRNA-seq to mitigate the remaining gaps.

Oxytocin has been implicated in regulating social behaviour and emotional responses; however, the underlying neural circuits remain incompletely understood. Neurons expressing oxytocin receptors (OTRs) in the paraventricular thalamus (PVT) are emerging as a potential modulator of these processes. In this study, we investigated the specific role of OTR-expressing PVT neurons in sociability and fear-related behaviours. Using chemogenetic approaches, we found that bidirectional manipulation of these neurons significantly modulated social behaviour and fear extinction in mice. Inhibition of OTR-expressing PVT neurons impaired sociability and fear extinction, whereas activation selectively enhanced early extinction learning without affecting sociability. Electrophysiological analyses revealed that oxytocin increases tonic firing in PVT neurons, suggesting a mechanism for heightened excitability. In contrast, manipulation of OTR-expressing neurons in the medial prefrontal cortex had no effect on sociability. In a complementary human dataset, salivary oxytocin levels were modestly associated with thalamic microstructure and autism spectrum disorder trait severity. Although the experimental paradigms differed across species, these findings collectively suggest that OTR-expressing PVT neurons may contribute to social and emotional behaviours through circuit-specific mechanisms. These findings may have implications for psychiatric conditions such as autism spectrum disorder and anxiety. Future translational studies should explore the therapeutic potential of targeting oxytocin-related PVT function to treat social and fear-related deficits. Overall, these findings advance our understanding of the role of oxytocin in brain function and its relevance to mental health.

BACKGROUND: Self-esteem is a critical factor in the psychological adjustment of children and adolescents, yet little is known about how autistic traits and parenting styles interact to relate self-worth in individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Understanding these relationships may provide important insights for family-based interventions. METHODS: We conducted a cross-sectional study of 76 participants (ASD: n = 40; typically developing [TD]: n = 36). Autistic traits were assessed using the Japanese version of the Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ-J), parenting attitudes were evaluated with the Parental Nurturance and Parenting Scale (PNPS), and self-esteem was measured using the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES). In the ASD group, clinician-rated autism symptom severity was additionally assessed using the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule, Second Edition (ADOS-2). Associations among autistic traits, parenting attitudes, and self-esteem were examined using multiple linear regression and partial correlation analyses. RESULTS: Children and adolescents with ASD exhibited significantly lower self-esteem than their TD peers (RSES: ASD < TD, p < 0.01). In the combined sample, higher AQ-J scores were independently associated with lower self-esteem (β ≈ -0.48, p < 0.01). Within the ASD group, negative parenting attitudes were linked to lower self-esteem (β = -0.36, p = 0.02), whereas positive parenting attitudes showed a non-significant trend toward higher self-esteem (β = 0.20, p = 0.17). Conversely, clinician-rated autism symptom severity assessed by the ADOS-2 was not associated with self-esteem (β = 0.06, p = 0.72). Overall, parenting attitudes were more closely related to self-esteem than clinician-rated symptom severity in the ASD group. CONCLUSION: These findings underscore the relevance of parenting contexts in relation to self-esteem among youth with ASD. Although autistic traits were associated with greater vulnerability in self-esteem, supportive parenting attitudes were associated with more favorable self-esteem outcomes. Together, the results suggest that parenting-related factors may be important considerations when addressing psychological well-being in autistic children and adolescents.

AIM: This study aimed to explore the relationship between self-esteem and tumor necrotic factor-alpha (TNF-α) expression in individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Self-esteem was assessed using the Contingencies of Self-Worth (CSW) scale, with a focus on external and internal contingencies, and TNF-α expression was measured, given its association with both ASD pathophysiology and self-esteem in prior studies. METHODS: We enrolled 51 high-functioning individuals with ASD and 34 typically developed (TD) individuals. Self-esteem was assessed using the Japanese version of the CSW scale, which evaluates seven domains, and the Personal Sense of Power. TNF-α expression in plasma was quantified via ELISA. Correlations of CSW scores and the Personal Sense of Power with TNF-α levels were analyzed using multiple regression models adjusted for confounding factors such as age, sex, education level, and autistic symptoms. RESULTS: In ASD individuals, TNF-α expression was significantly negatively correlated with the external CSW domain of others' approval and showed a trend toward negative correlations with appearance and relationship harmony. These correlations were not observed in the TD individuals. Likewise, the Personal Sense of Power within family settings showed a trend toward positive correlations with TNF-α expression in ASD individuals, but not in TD individuals. DISCUSSION: This study highlights the implication of TNF-α levels in the self-esteem of ASD individuals, particularly in interpersonal relationships. Lower TNF-α expression was associated with higher self-esteem in social contexts, independent of the severity of autistic symptoms. These findings suggest a biological link between inflammatory pathways and self-esteem in ASD, contributing to a deeper understanding of the interplay between immune function and psychological well-being in this population.

Sensory issues are common in autism spectrum disorders (ASD) and can significantly affect daily living. The phenomena of gating and habituation of event-related potentials (ERPs) to repetitive stimuli have been suggested as potential biomarkers reflecting atypical sensory processing in ASD. Sensory hypersensitivity and anxiety are closely related in ASD, and habituation to emotionally evocative stimuli may serve as a more sensitive biomarker for sensory hypersensitivity symptoms. However, previous studies have primarily used tonal stimuli, and there has been little investigation into whether habituation to emotionally evocative sounds is impaired in ASD patients. In this study, we compared the degree of habituation of the P1-N1 peak-to-peak amplitude in response to repeated tones and fearful vocalizations between control and ASD groups. Contrary to expectations, no significant difference was observed for fearful vocalizations between the groups, while ASD patients showed significantly reduced habituation to tonal sounds in the left parieto-occipital region. Furthermore, we found a significant correlation between the degree of habituation to tonal sounds in the left parieto-occipital region and sensory hypersensitivity symptoms in ASD patients, and similar abnormalities in BTBR mice, an animal model of ASD. These results suggest that habituation to tonal sounds, rather than emotionally evocative stimuli, may serve as a translational biomarker reflecting sensory hypersensitivity symptoms.

Dendritic spine abnormalities are believed to be one of the critical etiologies of autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Over the past decade, the importance of microglia in brain development, particularly in synaptic elimination, has become evident. Thus, microglial abnormalities may lead to synaptic dysfunction, which may underlie the pathogenesis of ASD. Several human studies have demonstrated aberrant microglial activation in the brains of individuals with ASD, and studies in animal models of ASD have also shown a relationship between microglial dysfunction and synaptic abnormalities. However, there are very few methods available to directly assess whether phagocytosis by human microglia is abnormal. Microglia are tissue-resident macrophages with phenotypic similarities to monocyte-derived macrophages, both of which consistently exhibit pathological phenotypes in individuals with ASD. Therefore, in this study, we examined the phagocytosis capacity of human macrophages derived from peripheral blood monocytes. These macrophages were polarized into two types: those induced by granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF MΦ, traditionally referred to as "M1 MΦ") and those induced by macrophage colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF MΦ, traditionally referred to as "M2 MΦ"). Synaptosomes purified from human induced pluripotent stem cell-derived neuron were used to assess phagocytosis capacity. Our results revealed that M-CSF MΦ exhibited higher phagocytosis capacity compared to GM-CSF MΦ, whereas ASD-M-CSF MΦ showed a marked impairment in phagocytosis. Additionally, we found a positive correlation between phagocytosis capacity and cluster of differentiation 209 expression. This research contributes to a deeper understanding of the pathobiology of ASD and offers new insights into potential therapeutic targets for the disorder.

Individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) are more likely to experience adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) compared with typically developing (TD) individuals, which predisposes them to an elevated risk of mental health issues. This review elucidates the profound impact of ACEs on individuals with ASD by synthesizing findings from a plethora of epidemiologic and biological studies, encompassing genetics, epigenetics, and neuroimaging. Despite the limited number of studies explicitly focusing on this intersection, the extant literature consistently demonstrates that ASD individuals are disproportionately affected by ACEs, leading to significant deterioration in mental health and brain function. Furthermore, the nature and extent of the effects of ACEs appear to diverge between ASD and TD populations, underscoring the necessity for tailored clinical and research approaches. Understanding these complex and intertwined interactions is imperative for advancing both clinical practice and research, with the goal of mitigating the adverse outcomes associated with ACEs in ASD individuals.

AIM: Adverse childhood experiences are potentially traumatic events with long-lasting effects on the health and well-being of patients with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). It is important to clarify which types of long-lasting autism-related symptoms are influenced by childhood experiences to design future intervention studies. However, few studies have examined the association between childhood experiences and autistic symptoms in large samples of adults with ASD and individuals with typical development (TD). In this study, we evaluate the effects of adverse childhood experiences on multiple ASD phenotypes among both individuals with ASD and those with TD. METHOD: We combined questionnaire evaluations; Childhood Abuse and Trauma Scale, the Japanese version of the Autism-Spectrum Quotient, Conners' Adult ADHD Rating Scale, the Japanese version of the Impact of Event Scale-Revised, and the Japanese version of the Adolescent/Adult Sensory Profile. RESULTS: Individuals with ASD and those with TD (n = 205 and 104, respectively) were included. There were significant correlations between the extent of adverse childhood experiences and severity of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms, posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms, and hypersensitivity in both participants with ASD and those with TD. By contrast, ASD core symptoms showed no significant correlation with adverse childhood experiences in either group. These results remained consistent after adjusting for age, sex, and the estimated intelligence quotient. CONCLUSION: These findings suggest the need for a detailed disentanglement of ASD-related core and peripheral symptoms of adverse childhood experiences, which may help to appropriately set outcomes for future early interventions for the childhood experiences of individuals with ASD.

Background Social isolation during critical periods of development is associated with alterations in behavior and neuronal circuitry. This study aimed to investigate the immediate and developmental effects of social isolation on firing properties, neuronal activity-regulated pentraxin (NARP) and parvalbumin (PV) expression in the prefrontal cortex (PFC), social behavior in juvenile socially isolated mice, and the biological relevance of NARP expression in autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Methods Mice were subjected to social isolation during postnatal days 21–35 (P21–P35) and were compared with group-housed control mice. Firing properties in the PFC pyramidal neurons were altered in P35 socially isolated mice, which might be associated with alterations in NARP and PV expression. Results In adulthood, mice that underwent juvenile social isolation exhibited difficulty distinguishing between novel and familiar mice during a social memory task, while maintaining similar levels of social interaction as the control mice. Furthermore, a marked decrease in NARP expression in lymphoblastoid cell lines derived from adolescent humans with ASD as compared to typically developing (TD) humans was found. Conclusion Our study highlights the role of electrophysiological properties, as well as NARP and PV expression in the PFC in mediating the developmental consequences of social isolation on behavior.

BACKGROUND: A growing body of evidence suggests that immune dysfunction and inflammation in the peripheral tissues as well as the central nervous system are associated with the neurodevelopmental deficits observed in autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Elevated expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines in the plasma, serum, and peripheral blood mononuclear cells of ASD has been reported. These cytokine expression levels are associated with the severity of behavioral impairments and symptoms in ASD. In a prior study, our group reported that tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) expression in granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor-induced macrophages (GM-CSF MΦ) and the TNF-α expression ratio in GM-CSF MΦ/M-CSF MΦ (macrophage colony-stimulating factor-induced macrophages) was markedly higher in individuals with ASD than in typically developed (TD) individuals. However, the mechanisms of how the macrophages and the highly expressed cytokines affect neurons remain to be addressed. METHODS: To elucidate the effect of macrophages on human neurons, we used a co-culture system of control human-induced pluripotent stem cell-derived neurons and differentiated macrophages obtained from the peripheral blood mononuclear cells of five TD individuals and five individuals with ASD. All participants were male and ethnically Japanese. RESULTS: Our results of co-culture experiments showed that GM-CSF MΦ affect the dendritic outgrowth of neurons through the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines, interleukin-1α and TNF-α. Macrophages derived from individuals with ASD exerted more severe effects than those derived from TD individuals. LIMITATIONS: The main limitations of our study were the small sample size with a gender bias toward males, the use of artificially polarized macrophages, and the inability to directly observe the interaction between neurons and macrophages from the same individuals. CONCLUSIONS: Our co-culture system revealed the non-cell autonomous adverse effects of GM-CSF MΦ in individuals with ASD on neurons, mediated by interleukin-1α and TNF-α. These results may support the immune dysfunction hypothesis of ASD, providing new insights into its pathology.

Microglia and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) are essential for the neuroplasticity that characterizes critical developmental periods. The experience-dependent development of social behaviors-associated with the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC)-has a critical period during the juvenile period in mice. However, whether microglia and BDNF affect social development remains unclear. Herein, we aimed to elucidate the effects of microglia-derived BDNF on social behaviors and mPFC development. Mice that underwent social isolation during p21-p35 had increased Bdnf in the microglia accompanied by reduced adulthood sociability. Additionally, transgenic mice overexpressing microglial Bdnf-regulated using doxycycline at different time points-underwent behavioral, electrophysiological, and gene expression analyses. In these mice, long-term overexpression of microglial BDNF impaired sociability and excessive mPFC inhibitory neuronal circuit activity. However, administering doxycycline to normalize BDNF from p21 normalized sociability and electrophysiological function in the mPFC, whereas normalizing BDNF from later ages (p45-p50) did not normalize electrophysiological abnormalities in the mPFC, despite the improved sociability. To evaluate the possible role of BDNF in human sociability, we analyzed the relationship between adverse childhood experiences and BDNF expression in human macrophages, a possible proxy for microglia. Results show that adverse childhood experiences positively correlated with BDNF expression in M2 but not M1 macrophages. In summary, our study demonstrated the influence of microglial BDNF on the development of experience-dependent social behaviors in mice, emphasizing its specific impact on the maturation of mPFC function, particularly during the juvenile period. Furthermore, our results propose a translational implication by suggesting a potential link between BDNF secretion from macrophages and childhood experiences in humans.

BACKGROUND: Social isolation during critical periods of development is associated with alterations in behavior and neuronal circuitry. This study aimed to investigate the immediate and developmental effects of social isolation on firing properties, neuronal activity-regulated pentraxin (NARP) and parvalbumin (PV) expression in the prefrontal cortex (PFC), social behavior in juvenile socially isolated mice, and the biological relevance of NARP expression in autism spectrum disorder (ASD). METHODS: Mice were subjected to social isolation during postnatal days 21-35 (P21-P35) and were compared with group-housed control mice. Firing properties in the PFC pyramidal neurons were altered in P35 socially isolated mice, which might be associated with alterations in NARP and PV expression. RESULTS: In adulthood, mice that underwent juvenile social isolation exhibited difficulty distinguishing between novel and familiar mice during a social memory task, while maintaining similar levels of social interaction as the control mice. Furthermore, a marked decrease in NARP expression in lymphoblastoid cell lines derived from adolescent humans with ASD as compared to typically developing (TD) humans was found. CONCLUSION: Our study highlights the role of electrophysiological properties, as well as NARP and PV expression in the PFC in mediating the developmental consequences of social isolation on behavior.

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a heterogeneous disorder characterized by impaired social communication and restricted repetitive behaviors, however the biological mechanisms remain unclear. Although trace elements play essential roles in the living body, it is unclear how alterations of trace elements in ASD are involved in pathogenesis. Here we analyzed the plasma metallome and identified the alterations of 11 elements in individuals with ASD. The copper decrease was negatively correlated with ASD symptom scores. A copper-deficient mouse model reflecting the condition showed ASD-like behaviors and impaired oligodendrocyte development. In copper-deficient mice, mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling was reduced, and its activation by agonist improved social impairment and oligodendrocyte developmental defects. Supporting these results, white matter volumes were negatively correlated with social symptoms in individuals with ASD. Our results demonstrate that copper-deficiency contributes to ASD by causing oligodendrocytes impairment via mTOR signaling. Our findings indicate that the effects of copper-deficiency and mTOR imbalance are relevant to the pathogenesis of ASD and are potential therapeutic targets.

Microglia and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) are essential for the neuroplasticity that characterizes critical developmental periods. The experience-dependent development of social behaviors-associated with the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC)-has a critical period during the juvenile period in mice. However, whether microglia and BDNF affect social development remains unclear. Herein, we aimed to elucidate the effects of microglia-derived BDNF on social behaviors and mPFC development. Mice that underwent social isolation during p21-p35 had increased Bdnf in the microglia accompanied by reduced adulthood sociability. Additionally, transgenic mice overexpressing microglia Bdnf -regulated using doxycycline at different time points-underwent behavioral, electrophysiological, and gene expression analyses. In these mice, long-term overexpression of microglia BDNF impaired sociability and excessive mPFC inhibitory neuronal circuit activity. However, administration of doxycycline to normalize BDNF from p21 normalized sociability and electrophysiological functions; this was not observed when BDNF was normalized from a later age (p45-p50). To evaluate the possible role of BDNF in human sociability, we analyzed the relationship between adverse childhood experiences and BDNF expression in human macrophages, a possible substitute for microglia. Results show that adverse childhood experiences positively correlated with BDNF expression in M2 but not M1 macrophages. Thus, microglia BDNF might regulate sociability and mPFC maturation in mice during the juvenile period. Furthermore, childhood experiences in humans may be related to BDNF secretion from macrophages.

薬物依存症再発予防プログラムであるSMARPP(Serigaya Methamphetamine Relapse Prevention Program)参加群と不参加群の属性を比較検討した。さらに、SMARPP参加群の治療継続率や断薬率などのSMARPP導入効果を確認した。SMARPP導入前では2015年1月1日～2016年12月31日、SMARPP導入後では2017年1月1日～2020年12月31日を調査期間とし、当院を初診しDSM-5でアルコールを除く物質使用障害の診断基準を満たす者を対象とした。SMARPP導入後における参加群は59人、不参加群は152人、後参加群は13人であり、初診時年齢は参加群が38.5歳、不参加群が38.5歳、両群とも男女比は約3:1であった。最終観察時における治療継続群と治療中断群の初診時の属性について、初診時年齢、初回使用年齢、初回使用から初診までの年数のいずれにおいても両群に有意な差を認めなかった。薬物依存症患者の早期の治療中断が多いことが当院の課題であったが、SMARPP導入により治療継続率と断薬率の上昇がみられた。

The etiology of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is complex, and its pathobiology is characterized by enhanced inflammatory activities; however, the precise pathobiology and underlying causes of ASD remain unclear. This study was performed to identify inflammatory indicators useful for diagnosing ASD. The mRNA expression of cytokines, including tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), was measured in cultured M1 and M2 macrophages from patients with ASD (n = 29) and typically developed (TD) individuals (n = 30). Additionally, TNF-α expression in the monocytes of patients with ASD (n = 7), showing aberrations in TNF-α expression in M1/M2 macrophages and TD individuals (n = 6), was measured. TNF-α expression in M1 macrophages and the TNF-α expression ratio in M1/M2 macrophages were markedly higher in patients with ASD than in TD individuals; however, this increase was not observed in M2 macrophages (M1: sensitivity = 34.5%, specificity = 96.7%, area under the curve = 0.74, positive likelihood ratio = 10.34; ratio of M1/M2: sensitivity = 55.2%, specificity = 96.7%, area under the curve = 0.79, positive likelihood ratio = 16.55). Additionally, TNF-α expression in monocytes did not significantly differ between patients with ASD and TD individuals. In conclusion, further studies on TNF-α expression in cultured macrophages may improve the understanding of ASD pathobiology. LAY SUMMARY: TNF-α expression in differentiated M1 macrophages and TNF-α expression ratio in differentiated M1/M2 macrophages were markedly higher in patients with ASD than in TD individuals, while no difference in TNF-α expression was found in pre-differentiation cells such as monocytes. These measurements allow elucidation of the novel pathobiology of ASD and can contribute to biomarker implementation for the diagnosis of adult high-functioning ASD.

BACKGROUND: It has been reported that delirium causes various problems. Many researchers have reported the risk factors associated with the onset of delirium; however, there are few reports focused on persistent delirium. This study aimed to identify the risk factors associated with persistent delirium. METHODS: A total of 573 patients hospitalised in Nara Prefecture General Medical Centre from October 2014 through September 2017 who were referred to the psychiatry consultation service were included in this study. Persistent delirium was defined as delirium lasting for 14 days or more. A retrospective study was carried out based on the patients' records. The relationship between various background factors and persistent delirium was statistically analysed. RESULTS: Of the 573 hospitalised patients, 295 were diagnosed as having delirium. Forty-six patients with persistent delirium and 181 patients with nonpersistent delirium were included in this study. Multivariable logistic regression analyses revealed that male gender, opioid analgesics use, non-opioid analgesics use, and low serum sodium were significantly and independently associated with persistent delirium. Ramelteon or trazodone was used significantly more in persistent delirium, although each use was not significant. CONCLUSION: This is the first study to reveal that male gender and use of analgesics were associated with persistent delirium in general hospital. However, as this is a case-control study and may contain bias, future cohort studies and intervention studies are needed. It is also necessary to investigate the relevance of the 'degree of pain' behind the use of analgesics.

BACKGROUND: Transurethral resection of bladder tumor (TURBT) is an essential procedure both for the treatment and staging of bladder cancer, particularly non-muscle invasive bladder cancer (NMIBC). The dissemination of cancer cells during resection and the consequent seeding into the bladder mucosa is the main cause of post-TURBT intravesical recurrence. Although the tumor dissemination is inevitable during conventional TURBT (cTURBT), this drawback can be overcome by tumor resection in one piece with intact surrounding normal tissues, referred to as en bloc resection. We previously described the photodynamic diagnosis (PDD)-assisted en bloc TURBT (EBTUR) technique and its favorable outcomes. Based on our preliminary studies, this randomized controlled trial was designed to evaluate the superiority of PDD-EBTUR to PDD-cTURBT. METHODS: The FLEBER study is a single-center randomized controlled trial in NMIBC patients who require TURBT. The longest diameter of the tumor must be between 6 and 30 mm. A total of 160 eligible patients will be enrolled after screening and randomly allocated to the PDD-EBTUR (experimental) and PDD-cTURBT (control) groups in a 1:1 ratio (80 cases to 80 cases). All patients will be treated using a single, immediate postoperative intravesical chemotherapy with epirubicin. The primary endpoint of this trial is the 2-year recurrence-free survival after surgery in pathologically proven low- or intermediate-risk NMIBC. All patients will be monitored by cystoscopy and urine cytology every 3 months for 2 years. Patient data including adverse events and complications, and data from frequency volume charts, pain scales, and health-related QOL questionnaires will be collected before and after the TURBT at indicated visits. DISCUSSION: The goal of this trial is to determine the potential benefits of PDD-cTURBT and PDD-EBTUR followed by a single immediate postoperative intravesical chemotherapy in patients with low- or intermediate-risk NMIBC who undergo TURBT. Ultimately, our findings will lead to the development of better interventions and potentially change the standard of care. TRIAL REGISTRATION: This clinical trial was prospectively registered with the UMIN Clinical Trials Registry on 1 August 2020. The reference number is UMIN000041273 , and the Ethics Committee of Nara Medical University Approval ID is 2702.

Background: Radiotherapy is one of the most frequently selected treatment options for patients with prostate cancer. However, adverse effects related to the irradiated surrounding normal organs are significant clinical concerns. Specifically, genitourinary and gastrointestinal toxicities can lead to a dramatically reduced quality of life. The aim of this clinical trial is to determine the efficacy of oral 5-aminolevulinic acid (ALA) phosphate with sodium ferrous citrate (SFC) in patients treated with low-dose-rate brachytherapy (LDR-BT) using an iodine-125 seed source. Methods: The AMBER study is a prospective, single-center trial in patients with localized prostate cancer undergoing LDR-BT. Patients who undergo supplementary extra-beam radiotherapy are excluded, whereas those who undergo pre-implantation short-term (4-6 months) androgen deprivation therapy to decrease the prostate volume and/or improve oncological outcomes are included. After the screening and registration, the patients will be instructed to take capsules of ALA-SFC twice a day (200 mg and 229.42 mg per day) for 6 months from the day of seed implantation (prescribed radiation dose of 160 Gy). Patient data will be collected before the implantation; during oral ALA-SFC treatment; and 1, 3, 6, 9, and 12 month(s) after seed implantation. The primary endpoint of this trial is the urinary frequency 3 months after seed implantation. At each visit, the 24-h urinary frequency, total voided volume, and mean voided volume on a frequency volume chart and other patient-reported outcomes are recorded. The data of the trial cases will be compared with those of historical controls, who are consecutive patients undergoing LDR-BT without supplementary extra-beam radiotherapy between January 2016 and January 2019. The number of subjects has been set to be 50 for trial cases and 150 for the historical control cases. Pre- and post-treatment clinicopathologic factors are compared between two groups. Discussion: The goal of this trial is to determine the potential benefit of ALA-SFC in patients who undergo LDR-BT. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study investigating the potential clinical benefit of oral ALA-SFC after radiotherapy. More evidence from a further randomized controlled trial is needed to change the standard of care and lead to better post-radiotherapy management. Trial registration: This clinical trial was prospectively registered with the Japan Registry of Clinical Trials on 5 December 2019. The reference number is jRCTs051190077, nara0013 (Certified Review Board of Nara Medical University).